MEFA UNIT-1

MANAGERIAL ECONOMICS

UNIT - 1

Nature Of Managerial Economics

Managerial Economics and Business economics are the two terms, which, at times have been used interchangeably. Of late, however, the term Managerial Economics has become more popular and seems to displace progressively the term Business Economics.

The prime function of a management executive in a business organization is decision-making and forward planning. Decision-making means the process of selecting one action from two or more alternative courses of action whereas forward planning means establishing plans for the future. The question of choice arises because resources such as capital, land, labour and management are limited and can be employed in alternative uses. The decision-making function thus becomes one of making choices or decisions that will provide the most efficient means of attaining a desired end, say, profit maximization. Once decision is made about the particular goal to be achieved, plans as to production, pricing, capital, raw materials, labour, etc., are prepared. Forward planning thus goes hand in hand with decision-making.

CONTINUED

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White LED

Until recently, though, the price of an LED lighting system was too high for most residential use. With sales rising and prices steadily decreasing, it's been said that whoever makes the best white LED will open a goldmine.
White LED lighting has been used for years by the RV and boating crowd, running off direct current (DC) battery systems. It then got popular in off-the-grid houses, powered by photovoltaic cells. It used to be that white LED was possible only by "rainbow" groups of three LEDs -- red, green, and blue -- and controlling the current to each to yield an overall white light. Now a blue indium gallium chip with a phosphor coating is used to create the wave shift necessary to emit white light from a single diode. This process is much less expensive for the amount of light generated.
Each diode is about 1/4 inch and consumes about ten milliamps (a tenth of a watt). Lamps come in various arrangements of diodes on a circuit board. Standard arrays are three, six, 12, or 18 diodes, or custom sizes -- factories can incorporate these into custom-built down lights, sconces and surface-mounted fixtures. With an inexpensive transformer, they run on standard 120-volt alternating current (AC), albeit with a slight (about 15% to 20%) power loss. They are also available as screw-in lamps to replace incandescent. A 1.2 watt white LED light cluster is as bright as a 20-watt incandescent lamp.

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Nanotechnology

Definition
Nanotechnology is defined as fabrication of devices with atomic or molecular scale precision. Devices with minimum feature sizes less than 100 nanometers (nm) are considered to be products of nanotechnology. A nanometer is one billionth of a meter (10-9 m) and is the unit of length that is generally most appropriate for describing the size of single molecules. The nanoscale marks the nebulous boundary between the classical and quantum mechanical worlds; thus, realization of nanotechnology promises to bring revolutionary capabilities. Fabrication of nanomachines, nanoelectronics and other nanodevices will undoubtedly solve an enormous amount of the problems faced by mankind today.
Nanotechnology is currently in a very infantile stage. However, we now have the ability to organize matter on the atomic scale and there are already numerous products available as a direct result of our rapidly increasing ability to fabricate and characterize feature sizes less than 100 nm. Mirrors that don't fog, biomimetic paint with a contact angle near 180°, gene chips and fat soluble vitamins in aqueous beverages are some of the first manifestations of nanotechnology. However, immenant breakthroughs in computer science and medicine will be where the real potential of nanotechnology will first be achieved.
Nanoscience is an interdisciplinary field that seeks to bring about mature nanotechnology. Focusing on the nanoscale intersection of fields such as physics, biology, engineering, chemistry, computer science and more, nanoscience is rapidly expanding. Nanotechnology centers are popping up around the world as more funding is provided and nanotechnology market share increases. The rapid progress is apparent by the increasing appearance of the prefix "nano" in scientific journals and the news. Thus, as we increase our ability to fabricate computer chips with smaller features and improve our ability to cure disease at the molecular level, nanotechnology is here.


History of Nanotechnology
The amount of space available to us for information storage (or other uses) is enormous. As first described in a lecture titled, 'There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom' in 1959 by Richard P. Feynman, there is nothing besides our clumsy size that keeps us from using this space. In his time, it was not possible for us to manipulate single atoms or molecules because they were far too small for our tools. Thus, his 
speech was completely theoretical and seemingly fantastic. He described how the laws of physics do not limit our ability to manipulate single atoms and molecules. Instead, it was our lack of the appropriate methods for doing so. However, he correctly predicted that the time would come in which atomically precise manipulation of matter would inevitably arrive.
Prof. Feynman described such atomic scale fabrication as a bottom-up approach, as opposed to the top-down approach that we are accustomed to. The current top-down method for manufacturing involves the construction of parts through methods such as cutting, carving and molding.

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Girls: Saree Choice ???

The girls want to have a poll as to Which color should the saree be...
The choices are:
1. off white
2. pale blue
3. lavender
4. buttercup yellow

Comment your choices :)

ALL THE BEST EVERYONE!!! :)

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Electromagnetic bomb(E-Bomb)

Electromagnetic bomb(E-Bomb)

An electromagnetic bomb or E-bomb is a weapon designed to disable electronics with an electromagnetic pulse (EMP) that can couple with electrical/electronic systems to produce damaging current and voltage surges by electromagnetic induction. The effects are usually not noticeable beyond 10 km of the blast radius unless the device is nuclear or specifically designed to produce an electromagnetic pulse. Small nuclear weapons detonated at high altitudes can produce a strong enough signal to disrupt or damage electronics many miles from the focus of the explosion. During a nuclear EMP, the magnetic flux lines of the Earth alter the dispersion of energy so that it radiates very little to the North, but spreads out East, West, and South of the blast. The signal is divided into several time components, and can result in thousands of volts per meter of electromagnetic energy ranging from extreme negative to extreme positive polarities. This energy can travel long distances on power lines and through the air.

Effects

These weapons are not directly responsible for the loss of lives, but can disable some of the electronic systems on which industrialized nations are highly dependent.

Devices that are susceptible to EMP damage, from most to least vulnerable:

1. Integrated circuits (ICs), CPUs, silicon chips.
2. Transistors and diodes.
3. Inductors, electric motors
4. Vacuum tubes: also known as thermionic valves, gold-coated tubes can easily survive and are commonly found in "hardened" electronics like MIG fighter jets' control systems.

Transistor technology is likely to fail and old vacuum equipment survive. However, different types of transistors and ICs show different sensitivity to electromagnetism; bipolar ICs and transistors are much less sensitive than FETs and especially MOSFETs. To protect sensitive electronics, a Faraday cage must be placed around the item. Some makeshift Faraday cages have been suggested, such as aluminium foil, although such a cage would be rendered useless if any conductors passed through, such as power cords or antennas. A Faraday cage is meant to harmlessly route the signal around the electronics inside, but the conductors on the inside must be insulated from spurious currents that are induced as the signal passes around the surface of the cage. Hardened buildings employ the use of special EM gasketing on doors, special attention to conductive surfaces on the outside, and optical isolators on antennas. The electrical supply to a hardened building must be located at a surprising depth underground in order not to "couple" with the signal, and if the electrical supply is connected to a standard power grid, the EMP will send a large surge (large enough to burn out lightning arrestors) into the power supplies of sensitive electronics.

members of the United States EMP Commission.

History

The electromagnetic pulse was first observed during high-altitude nuclear weapon detonations.

Electromagnetic weapons are still mostly classified and research surrounding them is highly secret. Military speculators and experts generally think that E-bombs use explosively pumped flux compression generator technology as their power source, though a relatively small (10 kt) nuclear bomb, exploded between 30 and 300 miles in the atmosphere could send out enough power to damage electronics from coast to coast in the US. The US Army Corps of Engineers issued a publicly available pamphlet in the late 1990s that discusses in detail how to harden a facility against "HEMP" - high frequency electromagnetic pulse. It describes how water pipes, antennas, electrical lines, and windows allow EMP to enter a building.

According to some reports, the U.S. Navy used experimental E-bombs during the 1991 Gulf War. These bombs utilized warheads that converted the energy of conventional explosives into a pulse of radio energy. CBS News also reported that the U.S. dropped an E-bomb on Iraqi TV during the 2003 invasion of Iraq, but this has not been confirmed.

The Soviet Union conducted significant research into producing nuclear weapons specially designed for upper atmospheric detonations, a decision that was later followed by the United States and the United Kingdom. Only the Soviets ultimately produced any significant quantity of such warheads, most of which were disarmed following the Reagan-era arms talks. EMP-specialized nuclear weapon designs belong to the third generation of nuclear weapons.

Anyone who's been through a prolonged power outage knows that it's an extremely trying experience. Within an hour of losing electricity, you develop a healthy appreciation of all the electrical devices you rely on in life. A couple hours later, you start pacing around your house. After a few days without lights, electric heat or TV, your stress level shoots through the roof.

But in the grand scheme of things, that's nothing. If an outage hits an entire city, and there aren't adequate emergency resources, people may die from exposure, companies may suffer huge productivity losses and millions of dollars of food may spoil. If a power outage hit on a much larger scale, it could shut down the electronic networks that keep governments and militaries running. We are utterly dependent on power, and when it's gone, things get very bad, very fast.

An electromagnetic bomb, or e-bomb, is a weapon designed to take advantage of this dependency. But instead of simply cutting off power in an area, an e-bomb would actually destroy most machines that use electricity. Generators would be useless, cars wouldn't run, and there would be no chance of making a phone call. In a matter of seconds, a big enough e-bomb could thrust an entire city back 200 years or cripple a military unit.

The U.S. military has been pursuing the idea of an e-bomb for decades, and many believe it now has such a weapon in its arsenal. On the other end of the scale, terrorist groups could be building low-tech e-bombs to inflict massive damage on the United States.

The Basic Idea
The basic idea of an e-bomb -- or more broadly, an electromagnetic pulse (EMP) weapon -- is pretty simple. These sorts of weapons are designed to overwhelm electrical circuitry with an intense electromagnetic field.

If you've read How Radio Works or How Electromagnets Work, then you know an electromagnetic field in itself is nothing special. The radio signals that transmit AM, FM, television and cell phone calls are all electromagnetic energy, as is ordinary light, microwaves and x-rays.

For our purposes, the most important thing to understand about electromagnetism is that electric current generates magnetic fields and changing magnetic fields can induce electric current. This page from How Radio Works explains that a simple radio transmitter generates a magnetic field by fluctuating electrical current in a circuit. This magnetic field, in turn, can induce an electrical current in another conductor, such as a radio receiver antenna. If the fluctuating electrical signal represents particular information, the receiver can decode it.

A low intensity radio transmission only induces sufficient electrical current to pass on a signal to a receiver. But if you greatly increased the intensity of the signal (the magnetic field), it would induce a much larger electrical current. A big enough current would fry the semiconductor components in the radio, disintegrating it beyond repair.

Picking up a new radio would be the least of your concerns, of course. The intense fluctuating magnetic field could induce a massive current in just about any other electrically conductive object -- for example phone lines, power lines and even metal pipes. These unintentional antennas would pass the current spike on to any other electrical components down the line (say, a network of computers hooked up to phone lines). A big enough surge could burn out semiconductor devices, melt wiring, fry batteries and even explode transformers.

There are a number of possible ways of generating and "delivering" such a magnetic field. In the next section, we'll look at a few possible EMP weaponry concepts.

E-Bomb Effects
The United States is drawn to EMP technology because it is potentially non-lethal, but is still highly destructive. An E-bomb attack would leave buildings standing and spare lives, but it could destroy a sizeable military.

There is a range of possible attack scenarios. Low-level electromagnetic pulses would temporarily jam electronics systems, more intense pulses would corrupt important computer data and very powerful bursts would completely fry electric and electronic equipment.

In modern warfare, the various levels of attack could accomplish a number of important combat missions without racking up many casualties. For example, an e-bomb could effectively neutralize:

* vehicle control systems
* targeting systems, on the ground and on missiles and bombs
* communications systems
* navigation systems
* long and short-range sensor systems

EMP weapons could be especially useful in an invasion of Iraq, because a pulse might effectively neutralize underground bunkers. Most of Iraq's underground bunkers are hard to reach with conventional bombs and missiles. A nuclear blast could effectively demolish many of these bunkers, but this would take a devastating toll on surrounding areas. An electromagnetic pulse could pass through the ground, knocking out the bunker's lights, ventilation systems, communications -- even electric doors. The bunker would be completely uninhabitable.

U.S. forces are also highly vulnerable to EMP attack, however. In recent years, the U.S. military has added sophisticated electronics to the full range of its arsenal. This electronic technology is largely built around consumer-grade semiconductor devices, which are highly sensitive to any power surge. More rudimentary vacuum tube technology would actually stand a better chance of surviving an e-bomb attack.

A widespread EMP attack in any country would compromise a military's ability to organize itself. Ground troops might have perfectly functioning non-electric weapons (like machine guns), but they wouldn't have the equipment to plan an attack or locate the enemy. Effectively, an EMP attack could reduce any military unit into a guerilla-type army.

While EMP weapons are generally considered non-lethal, they could easily kill people if they were directed towards particular targets. If an EMP knocked out a hospital's electricity, for example, any patient on life support would die immediately. An EMP weapon could also neutralize vehicles, including aircraft, causing catastrophic accidents.

In the end, the most far-reaching effect of an e-bomb could be psychological. A full-scale EMP attack in a developed country would instantly bring modern life to a screeching halt. There would be plenty of survivors, but they would find themselves in a very different world.

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BODY LANGUAGE,Body Language – How to read others’ thoughts by their gestures

Allan Pease: “As a young boy, I was always aware that what people said was not always what they meant or were feeling and that it was…”

Everybody knows someone who can walk into a room full of people and, within minutes, give an accurate description about the relationships and feelings those people are experiencing. This ability to read a person’s attitudes and thoughts by their behaviour was the original communication system used by humans before spoken language evolved.

The original book was intended as a working manual for sales people, managers, negotiators and executives and has sold 5 million copies worldwide. The Definitive Book of Body Language is the result of over 30 years of involvement in this field and has been expanded in such a way that any person, regardless of his or her vocation or position in life, can use it to obtain a better understanding of life’s most complex event – a face-to-face encounter with another person.



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HARRY POTTER ALL 7 BOOKS

COMPLETE COLLECTION! ALL 7 BOOKS! Real, clean, simple PDFs.

1. Harry Potter and the Sorcerer’s Stone
2. Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets
3. Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban
4. Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire
5. Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix
6. Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince
7. Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows


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100 Funniest Mp3 Ringtones

100 Funniest Mp3 Ringtones

100 Mp3    | 6.2 MB

CLICK HERE TO DOWNLOAD

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స్టూడెంట్: మొత్తం మీరే చేసారు. ఇంక చాలు సర్, మీరు

స్టూడెంట్: మొత్తం మీరే చేసారు. ఇంక చాలు సర్, మీరు


మాకు 


ఇచ్చిన టఫ్ కొశ్చిన్ పేపర్స్ ఇంక చాలు! మీ పేపర్స్ వల్ల 

జీవితంలో చాలా కోల్పోయాము.

ప్రొఫెసర్: నా వల్లా..? యేం కోల్పోయావురా..?

స్టూడెంట్: ఇంకా అర్ధం కాలేదా మీకు? ఈ కాలేజ్ లో 

జాయిన్ అవ్వడానికి ముందు నాలో ఉండేది, ఇప్పుడు

లేనిది, యేంటో తెలుసా…? “పాస్ అవ్వటం”....! 

చిన్న చిన్న పరీక్షల్లో కూడా ఫెయిల్ అయ్యాను మీ 


వల్ల....

ఈ కొశ్చిన్ పేపర్స్ మీరే సెట్ చేస్తారు.. 

ఈ పేపర్ చాలా ఈజీ అని మీరు నన్నే కన్విన్స్ చేస్తారు.. 

నాకు ఎలా ఉంటుందో తెలుసా "దానిని చింపి విసిరేసి", 

నాకు ఒక్క ముక్క కూడా రాదు అని అరవాలనిపించేది.. 

పరీక్ష రాయి అంటారు.. నేను ఏదో రాద్దామని వస్తే.. మీరు 

నన్ను ఫెయిల్ చెయ్యాలని చూస్తారు.. పేపర్ లో చాయిస్ 

ఇవ్వరు.. ఏ కొశ్చిన్ కి ఏ ఆన్సర్ రాయాలొ కూడా మీరె 

చెప్తే ఇంక నేను ఎందుకు సర్ రాయడం..

చివరికి నేను క్లాస్ లో ఎలా కూర్చోవాలో కూడా మీరే చెప్తే, 

బుర్రకి ఏమి ఎక్కడం లేదు సర్..

కష్టమైన పేపర్ సెట్ చెయ్యటం లో ఉన్న ఆనందం ఏంటో 

మీకు తెలుసు. కానీ పేపర్ లో చదివిన కొశ్చిన్స్ లేకపొతే

కలిగే బాధ ఏంటో మీకు తెలియ.....

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TOUCH SCREEN MONITORS

Introduction
A touch screen is an easy to use input device that allows users to control PC software and DVD video by touching the display screen. A touch screen can be used with most PC systems as easily as other input devices such as track balls or touch pads.

Why Touch Technology?
 Touch screens enable people to use computers instantly, without any training whatsoever. 
 Touch screens virtually eliminate operator errors because users select from clearly defined menus. 
 Touch screens eliminate keyboards and mice, which many find intimidating and cumbersome to use.
 Touch screens are rugged enough to stand up to harsh environments where keyboards and mice often get damaged. 
 Touch screens provide fast access to any and all types of digital media, with no text-bound interface getting in the way. 
 Touch screens ensure that no space - on the desktop or elsewhere - is wasted, as the input device is completely integrated in to the monitors.

How Does a Touch Screen Works?
 Touch Screen Sensor: It is a clear glass panel with a touch responsive surface. The touch sensor/panel is placed over a display screen so that the responsive area of the panel covers the viewable area of the video screen. 
 Controller: I t is a small PC card that connects between the touch sensor and the PC. It takes information from the touch sensor and translates it into information that PC can understand. 
 Software Driver: The driver is a software update for the PC system that allows the touch screen and computer to work together. It tells the computer's operating system how to interpret the touch event information that is sent from the controller. 

Types of Touch Screen Technology
 Resistive
 Capacitive
 Surface acoustic wave
 Infrared

Resistive
Two types:
 4 wire resistive type
 5 wire resistive type

Advantages 
 High touch resolution 
 Pressure sensitive, works with any stylus 
 Not affected by dirt, dust, water, or light 
 Affordable touch screen technology
Disadvantages 
 75 % clarity 
 Resistive layers can be damaged by a sharp object 
 Less durable then 5-Wire Resistive technology

Captive
Two types
 Capacitive technology
 Pentouch Capacitive

Advantages
 High touch resolution
 High image clarity
 Not affected by dirt ,grease, moisture 
Disadvantages
 Must be touched by finger, will not work with any non conductive input.


Surface Wave
Advantages
 High touch resolution
 Highest image clarity
 All glass panel, no coatings
Disadvantages
 Must be touched by finger, gloved hand, or soft-tip stylus. Something hard like a pen won’t work.
 Not completely scalable, can be affected by large amounts of dirt, dust and water in the environment.

Infrared Touch Screen
This is the only type of touch technology that is available for large displays such as Plasma screens. It is a durable technology that offers high image clarity. Responds to any input device or stylus. 
Advantages
 Best image quality as there is no overlay
 Impervious to scratching
Disadvantages
 Low resolution
 May cause unintended activation of target proir to finger contact with CRT caused by IR light beam location above surface of CRT.
 Dust, oil or grease buildup on frame that impedes light beam may cause malfunction

Applications
 Public Information Displays
Tourism displays, trade show displays, and other electronic displays are used by many people that have little or no computing experience.
 Customer self-service
Customers can quickly place their own orders or check themselves in or out, saving them time, and decreasing wait times for other customers. Example: ATM 
 Computer Based Training
Since the touch screen interface is more user-friendly than other input devices, overall training time for computer novices and therefore training expense can be reduced. Also make learning more interactive and fun.
 Other applications include computerized gaming, student registration systems, financial and scientific applications.

Benefits
 Fast, faster, fastest 
 Touch makes everyone an expert
 Reduced cost
 Compact & handy
 Durable and easy to clean
 When ease of use is required

Conclusion
A touch screen is the simplest, most direct way for a person to interact with a computer. The basic way users interact with a touch screen is age-old. You point to what you want. It's intuitive for virtually every child and adult in the world today.

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GPRS

What is GPRS? 
The full form of the GPRS is General Packet Radio Services. 

The General Packet Radio Service GPRS is the new non-voice value added service which allows information to be sent & received across the mobile telephone network. It supplements today’s Circuit Switched Data and Short Message Service. GPRS is NOT related to GPS which is also known as the Global Positioning System, which is a similar acronym that is often used in the mobile contexts. GPRS has several unique features which can be summarized as:

SPEED of GPRS: Theoretical maximum speeds of up to 171.2 kilobits per second (kbps) are achievable with GPRS using all eight timeslots at the same time. This is about three times as fast as the data transmission speeds possible over today’s fixed telecommunications networksand ten times as fast as the current Circuit Switched Data services on the GSM networks.

IMMEDIACY of GPRS: GPRS facilitates instant connections whereby information can be sent or received immediately as the need arises, subject to radio coverage. No dial-up modem connection is necessary. This is why GPRS users are sometimes referred to be as being “always connected”.

NEW APPLICATIONS, BETTER APPLICATIONS: GPRS facilitates several new applications that have not previously been available over GSM networks due to the limitations in the speed of Circuit Switched Data of 9.6 kbps and message length of Short Message Service of 160 characters. GPRS will fully enable the Internet applications you are used to on your desktop from web browsing to chat over the mobile network.

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SMS

What is SMS?

SMS is characterized by out-of-band packet delivery and low-bandwidth message transfer, which results in a highly efficient means for transmitting short bursts of data. Initial applications of SMS focused on eliminating alphanumeric pagers by permitting two-way general-purpose messaging and notification services, primarily for voice mail. As technology and networks evolved, a variety of services have been introduced, including e-mail, fax, and paging integration, interactive banking, information services such as stock quotes, and integration with Internet-based applications. Wireless data applications include downloading of subscriber identity module (SIM) cards for activation, debit, profile-editing purposes, wireless points of sale (POSs), and other field-service applications such as automatic meter reading, remote sensing, and location-based services. Additionally, integration with the Internet spurred the development of Web-based messaging and other interactive applications such as instant messaging, gaming, and chatting.

Short message service (SMS) is a globally accepted wireless service that enables the transmission of alphanumeric messages between mobile subscribers and external systems such as electronic mail, paging, and voice mail systems.

The benefits of SMS to subscribers center around convenience, flexibility, and seamless integration of messaging services and data access. From this perspective, the benefit is to be able to use the handset as an extension of the computer. SMS also eliminates the need for separate devices for messaging, as services can be integrated into a single wireless device-the mobile terminal.

SMS provides a time stamp reporting the time of submission of the message and an indication to the handset of whether there are more messages to send (GSM) or the number of additional messages to send.

INTRODUCTION

SMS appeared on the wireless scene in 1991 in Europe. The European standard for digital wireless, now known as the Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM), included short messaging services from the outset.

In North America, SMS was made available initially on digital wireless networks built by early pioneers such as BellSouth Mobility, PrimeCo, and Nextel, among others. These digital wireless networks are based on GSM, code division multiple access (CDMA), and time division multiple access (TDMA) standards.

Network consolidation from mergers and acquisitions has resulted in large wireless networks having nationwide or international coverage and sometimes supporting more than one wireless technology. This new class of service providers demands network-grade products that can easily provide a uniform solution, enable ease of operation and administration, and accommodate existing subscriber capacity, message throughput, future growth, and services reliably. Short messaging service center (SMSC) solutions based on an intelligent network (IN) approach are well suited to satisfy these requirements, while adding all the benefits of IN implementations.

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